Topic marking
The base form for the topic marking particle is /a/ (i.e. Jp. /wa/) which will be modified according to the last syllable of the preceding noun.
1. For a word ending in /a/, add /a/ to that word.
ba (‘I’) + a = baa
1. ba=a kyuu=ya isIgasI munu.
I=TOP today=TOP busy
‘I am busy today.’
2. For a word ending in a long vowel (e.g. /aa/) or a sequence of vowels (e.g. /au/), add /ya/ to that word.
tii (‘hand’) + a = tii=ya hau (‘snake’) + a = hau=ya nai (‘nuts’) + a = nai=ya
3. vva=ga tii=ya gabaa munu
you=NOM hand=TOP big ADJ_PRED
‘Your hands are big.’
4. kunu hauya naga munu
this snake=TOP long ADJ_PRED
‘This snake is long.’
5. kunu kii nu nai=ya imi munu
this tree=GEN fruit=TOP small ADJ_PRED
‘The fruit of this tree is small.’
3. For a word ending in /u/, add /u/ to that word.
zzu + a = zzuu
zzuu mma munu
‘Fish are delicious.’
4. For a word ending in /i/, delete /i/ and add /yaa/ to that word.
huni (‘bone’) + a = hunyaa
hunyaa puka munu
‘The bones are hard.’
5. For a word ending in /sI, cI, zI/, change these final syllable to /ssa, ccya, zzya/.
usI (‘cow’) + a = ussa
akacI (‘blood’) + a = akaccya
buuzI (‘sugar cane’)+ a = buuzzya
ussa gabaa munu
‘Cows are big.’
akaccya akamunu
‘Blood is red’
kunu buuzzya naga munu
‘This sugarcane is long.’
6. For a word ending in /n/, add /na/ to that word.
in (‘dog’) + a = inna
kunu inna imi munu
‘This dog is small.’
[Note]
Some older speakers may pronounce some words with the final /m/. In this case, add /ma/.
im (‘ocean’) + a = imma mm (‘potato’) + a = mmma
Younger speakers pronounce these words with the final /n/. in (‘ocean’) + a = inna nn (‘potato’) + a = nnna