Topic marking

The base form for the topic marking particle is /a/ (i.e. Jp. /wa/) which will be modified according to the last syllable of the preceding noun.

1. For a word ending in /a/, add /a/ to that word.

ba (‘I’) + a = baa

1. ba=a kyuu=ya isIgasI munu.

I=TOP today=TOP busy

‘I am busy today.’

2. For a word ending in a long vowel (e.g. /aa/) or a sequence of vowels (e.g. /au/), add /ya/ to that word.

tii (‘hand’) + a = tii=ya hau (‘snake’) + a = hau=ya nai (‘nuts’) + a = nai=ya

3. vva=ga tii=ya gabaa munu

you=NOM hand=TOP big ADJ_PRED

‘Your hands are big.’

4. kunu hauya naga munu

this snake=TOP long ADJ_PRED

‘This snake is long.’

5. kunu kii nu nai=ya imi munu

this tree=GEN fruit=TOP small ADJ_PRED

‘The fruit of this tree is small.’

3. For a word ending in /u/, add /u/ to that word.

zzu + a = zzuu

zzuu mma munu

‘Fish are delicious.’

4. For a word ending in /i/, delete /i/ and add /yaa/ to that word.

huni (‘bone’) + a = hunyaa

hunyaa puka munu

‘The bones are hard.’

5. For a word ending in /sI, cI, zI/, change these final syllable to /ssa, ccya, zzya/.

usI (‘cow’) + a = ussa

akacI (‘blood’) + a = akaccya

buuzI (‘sugar cane’)+ a = buuzzya

ussa gabaa munu

‘Cows are big.’

akaccya akamunu

‘Blood is red’

kunu buuzzya naga munu

‘This sugarcane is long.’

6. For a word ending in /n/, add /na/ to that word.

in (‘dog’) + a = inna

kunu inna imi munu

‘This dog is small.’

[Note]

Some older speakers may pronounce some words with the final /m/. In this case, add /ma/.

im (‘ocean’) + a = imma mm (‘potato’) + a = mmma

Younger speakers pronounce these words with the final /n/. in (‘ocean’) + a = inna nn (‘potato’) + a = nnna